Highlights

• China has deployed over $120 billion in outbound investment across critical minerals since 2023, building end-to-end industrial control from mining through refining, logistics, and manufacturing rather than simply securing raw materials.
• China dominates midstream processing with 85–90% of rare earth refining and ~90% of battery components, while resource-rich countries like Australia risk remaining upstream suppliers despite producing over 50% of global lithium.
• The report reinforces that control of refining and downstream processing—not raw resources—defines strategic advantage, with the window for Western allies to shift from resource wealth to industrial power rapidly narrowing.

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A new report earlier this month by Dr. Marina Yue Zhang (opens in a new tab) of Climate Energy Finance covered by Rare Earth Exchanges™ finds that since 2023, China has deployed more than $120 billion in outbound investment across critical minerals—spanning lithium in Africa, nickel in Indonesia, and iron ore in Guinea—not merely to secure raw materials, but to build end-to-end industrial control across mining, refining, logistics, and manufacturing. As Rare Earth Exchanges has chronicled since our launch just over a year ago, China is not just buying minerals; it is building the systems that turn them into batteries, electric vehicles, and clean energy infrastructure. The report aligns with prior Rare Earth Exchanges analysis—China’s advantage lies not just in scale, but in vertical integration and midstream dominance, positioning it to capture the highest-value segments of the global energy transition while resource-rich nations risk remaining upstream suppliers.

Study Methods: Following Capital, Control, and Capacity

The report draws on foreign direct investment (FDI) tracking, project-level case studies, and trade flow analysis. It evaluates Chinese capital deployment geographically (Africa, Southeast Asia, Latin America) and structurally (mine → refine → manufacture → export). High-profile examples like the Simandou iron ore project in Guinea and lithium processing shifts away from Australia illustrate a consistent pattern: capital aligned with long-term industrial strategy, not opportunistic resource acquisition.

Key Findings: System Design, Not Resource Buying

China’s approach reflects a coordinated industrial model:

• Vertical integration: dominance in refining (≈85–90% of rare earth processing) and battery components (~90%)
• Geographic diversification: reducing reliance on single suppliers like Australia
• Embedded infrastructure: ports, rail, and energy systems tied to mineral access

For example, while Australia produces over 50% of global lithium, ~97% is exported—primarily to China for processing. Meanwhile, China is actively building alternative supply and refining hubs globally, reducing exposure to any single jurisdiction.

Implications: Value Capture Is Moving Downstream

For non-specialists, the takeaway is clear:

Mining generates revenue—but refining and manufacturing generate power.

China’s model captures:

• Higher-margin industrial activity
• Skilled jobs and technical know-how
• Long-term geopolitical leverage through supply chain control

By contrast, countries focused on extraction risk becoming price-takers in a system designed elsewhere.

Limitations and Contested Interpretations

The report is strategic and policy-oriented, not a predictive economic model. It assumes continued execution success and host-country alignment, which may vary. It also underweights Western industrial responses, including U.S. and allied investments now emerging. Environmental, social, and debt-related concerns tied to Chinese projects remain material and debated. REEx would add: the framing leans toward “clean energy enablement” and may understate the geopolitical leverage embedded in these systems.

What Comes Next: Industrial Policy or Structural Decline

The findings reinforce a central REEx thesis: Control of midstream and downstream processing—not raw resources—defines strategic advantage.

For Australia, the U.S., and allies, the path forward requires:

• Scaling, refining, and separation capabilities
• Building magnet and advanced materials ecosystems
• Coordinated industrial policy—not fragmented project finance

Conclusion

This is not a story about mining. It is a story about system-level control of the industrial future. China has spent decades mastering separation science, scaling processing, and embedding infrastructure globally. Others are just beginning. The window to shift from resource wealth to industrial power is narrowing—and closing faster than many policymakers appreciate.

Citation: Zhang, M.Y., Raw Power: China locks-in global dominance of critical minerals and metals with $120bn outbound investment surge (opens in a new tab), Climate Energy Finance, March 2026.