Highlights
- Rare earth permanent magnets are crucial for clean energy technologies but face supply chain and environmental challenges.
- China dominates the rare earth element supply chain, necessitating diversification and increased global production.
- R&D trends focus on alternative materials, improved performance, and recycling to meet growing demand for green energy technologies.
A team of university-based scientists from the United Kingdom, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, and South Africa address not only current developments in cleaner and more sustainable recycling, but also the bottlenecks associated with the development of rare earth permanent magnets powering the green industry transition. An important work given the criticality of rare earth elements (REE) as core components of high-performance permanent magnets crucial in the energy transition. Production of rare earth permanent magnets faces numerous challenges and is often subjected to geopolitical tensions, rivalries, and intrigue, notably China’s dominance in the overall supply chain due to a concerted and orchestrated plan over the last few decades. Articulating that governments must address the rare earth element supply chain challenges, critical dependency in achieving clean energy targets in 2050. A multi-facet approach incorporating research, investments, and policies will be the future in the rare earth sector according to the academic scientists.
According to this latest paper published in the peer-reviewed journal Resources, Conservation and Recycling, rare earth metals (REMs) are “indispensable for producing high-performance permanent magnets, key components in many clean energy technologies, such as wind turbines.”
Yetfundamental challenges ensue from limited availability to theenvironmental impact of rare earth mining, processing, and purification all challenging any accelerated green energy transition.
In the academic review the authors offer an overview of the main bottlenecks and challenges in using REM-based permanent magnets for clean energy applications, in addition to present day developments and potential solutions.
Source: Resources, Conservation and Recycling
Rare Earth Exchanges Takeaway
Corresponding author Yousef Ghorbani, College of Health and Science, School of Natural Science, University of Lincoln, Joseph Banks Laboratories, Green Lane in the UK plus colleagues summarize key points in this informative paper introducing first the magnetic properties, permanent magnet development history, current uses, and types of permanent magnets.
For example, of growing demand see Fig. 1. Global passenger (light duty) electric vehicles (EV) (in millions), including both battery EVs and plug-in hybrid EVs, from 2012 to 2022. The figure is sourced and modified from IEA (2023b) (opens in a new tab).
Source: Resources, Conservation and Recycling
Then probing present day requirements for REM-based magnets in wind turbines and electric vehicles, highlighting the demand and potential supply chain issues.
The authors then introduce primary bottlenecks and challenges related to rare earth ore availability, processing and recycling are identified.
What are the primary challenges?
- Geographical concentration of all rare earth oxide (REO) value chain portions
- Environmental concerns (waste and process toxicity and energy requirements)
- Market volatility (fluctuating demand and supply), and geopolitics of the mineral value chain
- Performance (temperature stability, corrosion resistance and other usability factors).
The most recent paper according to the authors presents current developments and potential solutions.
Providing a solid comprehensive breakdown of the role of REOs in the energy transition, the authors help the reader identify future research directions and policy interventions mission critical for any sustainable and secure supply of REM-based permanent magnets for clean energy technologies.
For magnetic field strength see Fig. 3. Remanence (Br) versus coercivity (Hci – here intrinsic coercivity in kilo ampere per meter) for the most commonly used permanent magnets. Note that NdFeB permanent magnet can also occur as a bonded magnet. The SmFeN bonded permanent magnet is still under development but exhibits similar properties and ranges as the more studied NdFeB bonded permanent magnets (Croat and Ormerod, 2022 (opens in a new tab)). All other magnet types are sintered (i.e., compacting and heating magnetic powders to form a solid magnet).
Source: Resources, Conservation and Recycling
For a history of permanent magnets, see the image below. Included in the illustration is the relative volume for the same magnet energy, calculated based on the maximum energy product (data from Croat and Ormerod, 2022 (opens in a new tab)). The figure is updated and modified from Croat and Ormerod (2022) (opens in a new tab).
Source: Resources, Conservation and Recycling
For a comparative analysis of REM sensitivity in wind turbines and small passenger vehicle see Fig 6. Data from IEA (2021) (opens in a new tab). (a) Wind Turbines. DFIG = double-fed induction generators, PMSG = permanent-magnet synchronous generator, EESG = electrically excited synchronous generator. Sand and limestone are also essential for producing glass fibers (blades) and concrete (tower and anchor). (b) Small passenger vehicles. EV = electric vehicle, Car = conventional gasoline car. *Note: Approximated REM values in electric motors are withheld as proprietary knowledge by companies. Many companies have announced intentions to reduce or eliminate REM permanent magnets in motors.
Source: Resources, Conservation and Recycling
The authors show how China dominates the process in fig. 7. Global supply chain for REOs to produce permanent magnets. The diagram is modified from Shen et al. (2020). * Denotes current challenges associated with each of the major supply chain streams. Values for Chinese dominance are sourced from USGS (2023) (opens in a new tab) and Wood Mackenzie (2022) (opens in a new tab).
Source: Resources, Conservation and Recycling
What’s the key message in this study?
REMs-based permanent magnets showcase exceptional magnetic properties defined by their magnetic flux density, field strength, remanence, and coercivity.
This means, according to the authors, that these magnets are crucial for energy transition, specifically for wind turbines, EV motors, and military technologies, such as drones.
What are the top REO challenges in production and supply chain?
Rare earth oxide production and supply chain initiatives encounter numerous challenges we list below:
- Limited global supply
- Environmental concerns
- Market volatility
- Magnet performance in a myriad of environments.
So, to up production to “upper bound” forecasts what needs to occur?
This for an entire fleet of renewable energy technologies to power the future. Outcomes derived from this “upper bound reveal that drastic increases in mining production alongside increased investments in research and development are necessary to pursue all means for all technologies and material demands for full electrification, assuming that all fossil fuels would be eventually replaced.”
What are projected global demands for REOs for green energy technologies, including wind turbines (both onshore and offshore) and EVs?
| REO | Demand Dynamics |
|---|---|
| Dysprosium (Dy) | Approximately 265,311 tonnes are required for a single generation of green energy technologies. In 2018, global mining production was 7500 tons, implying it would take about 35 years to meet the demand based on 2018 production levels. |
| Neodymium (Nd) | Around 1142,850 tons are needed for a single generation of green energy technologies. The 2018 global mining production was 23,900 tons, suggesting it would take about 48 years to meet the demand based on 2018 production levels. |
| Praseodymium (Pr) | Approximately 265,311 tones are required for a single generation of green energy technologies. In 2018, global mining production was 7500 tons, implying it would take about 35 years to meet the demand based on 2018 production levels. |
| Terbium (Tb) | 22,782 tons are needed for a single generation of green energy technologies. The 2018 global mining production was 280 tons, indicating it would take about 81 years to meet the demand based on 2018 production levels. |
What are some key R&D trends?
- Diversification of supply (new mining sources, recycling etc.)
- Exploration of alternative materials
- Improving current performance
What policies could help governments in the West for example?
Rare Earth Exchanges notes many of these are somewhat nebulous and that the true impact in underlying concepts occurs in private engagement protected by confidentiality agreements.
- Increased international collaboration
- Increase in investments
- Implementation of circular economy practices
- Increased transparency
- Implementation of demand-side measures
Daniel
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