Highlights
- China dominates 90% of global rare earth magnet production, controlling a critical supply chain for electric vehicles, renewable energy, and defense technologies.
- Multiple countries, including the US, Japan, South Korea, and European nations, are investing heavily in developing domestic rare earth magnet manufacturing capabilities.
- Despite significant efforts, China is expected to maintain 85-90% of global magnet production through the late 2020s, presenting both challenges and opportunities for investors.
Rare earth magnets – especially neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) types – are the powerful drivers at the heart of EV motors, wind turbines, and advanced weapons. Yet the journey “from mine to magnet” is overwhelmingly dominated by China, which controls about 90% of global rare earth magnet production. For investors, this choke point in the supply chain is both a risk and an opportunity. China’s near-monopoly means any disruption or export curb can send shockwaves through industries, while new Western and allied magnet projects promise to loosely challenge that dominance in the coming years. This article examines China’s grip on magnet manufacturing, the nascent ex-China magnet industry (in Japan, South Korea, Europe, and the U.S.), and why magnets – more than mines – may be the real rare earth bottleneck for investors to watch.
China’s Magnet Monopoly and State Backing
China is by far the largest producer of rare earth magnets, benefiting from decades of vertical integration and state support. Chinese firms like Beijing Zhong Ke San Huan (Tianjin Sanhuan Lucky New Materials Inc (opens in a new tab).), JL MAG Rare-Earth (opens in a new tab), Ningbo Yunsheng (opens in a new tab), and ZHmag (opens in a new tab) lead the industry, leveraging access to abundant local raw materials and government-backed innovation. This tight integration is no accident – China has consolidated its rare earth mining sector under just two giant state-owned groups (China Rare Earth Group (opens in a new tab) and China Northern Rare Earth Group (opens in a new tab) along with players like China Minmetals (opens in a new tab) and Shenghe Resources (opens in a new tab)) for tight quota control. These conglomerates ensure Chinese magnet manufacturers have a secure supply of key oxides (NdPr, Dy, Tb), often at lower costs than foreign rivals.
Thanks to this ecosystem, China not only produces the most magnets, but also sets the technological pace. For example, as this outlet has reported, China has rapidly expanded output of high-performance sintered NdFeB magnets (exporting over 58,000 tonnes in 2024) and is home to cutting-edge research in new magnet alloys. At the same time, Beijing hasn’t hesitated to wield its dominance as a geopolitical tool. From the 2010 rare earth embargo on Japan to the 2024–25 export controls on magnet alloys and heavy rare earth elements, China has signaled that it can squeeze supply when its strategic interests are at stake. Western manufacturers felt this acutely when Chinese export restrictions on Dy/Tb in 2024 caused immediate disruptions for automakers and wind turbine producers. Rare Earth Exchanges learned from sources within the military that contactors in the weapons development business experienced delays due to China’s export controls after “Liberation Day” and ensuing trade tiffs from April through the summer of this year.
For investors, China’s magnet monopoly presents a two-sided story. On one hand, Chinese companies (many state-linked) enjoy scale and cost advantages that make them formidable competitors. On the other hand, mounting geopolitical risk is spurring a global drive to build alternative magnet supply chains – a trend that could create new winners (and losers) outside China. The real bottleneck is not finding rare earths in the ground – it’s turning them into magnets at a commercial scale without Beijing’s help.
The Nascent ex-China Magnet Supply Chain
Ex-China magnet production is finally starting to take shape, albeit from a very small base as REEx has reported.
Key U.S. allies and partners – notably Japan, South Korea, Europe, and the United States as well an “The Quad” – have launched initiatives to produce magnets domestically or within friendly nations. Each region brings different strengths and faces unique challenges.
Japan: High-Tech Legacy, Limited Expansion
Japan historically has been the most sophisticated magnet producer outside China. Japanese researchers invented the NdFeB magnet in the 1980s, and Hitachi Metals (recently renamed Proterial in 2023 (opens in a new tab)) long held the foundational patents on NdFeB technology. Those patents (which expired by 2014) gave Japan a head start in know-how. Today, Japan manufactures an estimated 4,500 tonnes of NdFeB magnets annually – the bulk of non-Chinesesupply.
Major players include Proterial and Shin-Etsu Chemical (opens in a new tab) (4063.T), which make high-performance magnets for Toyota, Honda, and the electronics sector.
Japanese magnets are renowned for quality and advanced materials engineering. For instance, Hitachi/Proterial pioneered techniques to use less neodymium or substitute cheaper elements without much performance loss. Toyota has even commercialized magnets that partially substitute neodymium with lanthanum/cerium to reduce reliance on scarce Dy/Tb. However, Japan still depends on China for most of its rare earth oxide feedstock. Despite government stockpiling and R&D, Japan has not built major new magnet factories in 2024–25 – instead, it focuses on incremental improvements and overseas partnerships. Japanese firms are investing in recycling (e.g. co-funding a French magnet recycling plant) and in overseas ventures rather than large expansions at home. Bottom line: Japan’s magnet industry remains a template for high-end production, but growth in capacity has been modest, constrained by raw material supply and cost factors.
South Korea: JVs and Upstream Ambitions
South Korea is a newer entrant in rare earth magnet manufacturing. One notable project is POSCO International (opens in a new tab) (047050.KS) and its joint venture (opens in a new tab) with Korea’s Star Group Ind. Co., Ltd (opens in a new tab) to build a 3,000 t/yr NdFeB magnet plant – not only in Korea, but in the United States.
POSCO, better known as a steelmaker and trading company, already supplies magnets for Vietnam’s VinFast EVs (opens in a new tab) and sees an opportunity to expand in North America by leveraging free-trade agreements (for U.S. EV tax credits) as REEx has reported.
This planned U.S. magnet factory (site under consideration in Texas, Tennessee or Arizona) underscores South Korea’s strategy: invest abroad to secure markets, while building domestic competency via partnerships. At home, Korean conglomerates like LG Corp (opens in a new tab) (003550.KS) and Hanwha Corporation (000880.KS)are investing in rare earth processing and magnet recycling technologies, in some cases in collaboration with U.S. defense programs. South Korea doesn’t yet have a large-scale magnet producer of its own aside from the mentioned JV partner (Star Group again focusing on NdFeB supply). However, by plugging into allied supply chains – for example, Korea hosts an Australian Strategic Materials ( (opens in a new tab)ASM) plant making NdFeB alloy and supplies that to U.S. magnet makers – South Korea is positioning itself as a critical upstream player. We may see Korean-led magnet production later this decade, backed by the country’s robust electronics and automotive sectors.
Europe: Building Capacity and Focusing on Alloys
Europe has moved aggressively in 2024–2025 to establish regional magnet production, mixing state aid with private investment. A marquee project is Neo Performance Materials’ (opens in a new tab) (NEO:CA) new NdFeB magnet block plant in Estonia (EU/NATO territory). Neo (a Toronto-listed company with global operations) started constructing this plant in mid-2023, targeting 2,000 t/yr magnet capacity by 2025 according to reporting by REEx and potentially 5,000 t/yr with a planned second phase. This facility – one of Europe’s first large-scale magnet plants in decades – will serve EV and wind turbine makers with “local-for-local” magnets, reducing dependence on Chinese imports. Neo even acquired a UK magnet component maker (SG Technologies) to deepen its supply chain. See REEx’s “_Rare Earth Magnet Production Outside China Recently—Investor Briefing.”_
For investors, Neo’s EU expansion (supported by European incentives) makes it a rare publicly-traded play on Western magnet manufacturing.
Another major player in Germany is Vacuumschmelze (opens in a new tab) Group (VAC), employing over 4,000 at multiple sites around the globe. A subsidiary of the group, e-VAC Magnetics, is building a magnet production plant in South Carolina, USA.
Germany is emerging as a magnet hub, emphasizing recycling and integration with its auto industry. For example the global, family-owned technology company Heraeus Group (opens in a new tab) has built Europe’s largest magnet recycling facility in Germany, aiming to supply 30% of Europe’s magnet needs with recycled material as cited by this outlet.
Several medium-sized German firms (e.g. MS-Schramberg (opens in a new tab), Tridelta (opens in a new tab), Rheinmagnet (opens in a new tab), Magnetfabrik Bonn (opens in a new tab)) produce specialty magnets or assemblies as reported by REEx.
More significantly, GKN Powder Metallurgy (opens in a new tab) (a unit of UK’s Dowlais Group (opens in a new tab)) announced plans to set up 4,000 t/yr of magnet capacity across Europe and North America rareearthexchanges.com. GKN opened a pilot line in Germany in early 2025 and signed an MoU with auto-parts giant Schaeffler to collaborate on magnets for EV motors rareearthexchanges.com. Because GKN (via Dowlais (DWL.L)) is publicly traded, it offers investors a direct exposure to this venture.
Europe is also investing in upstream steps like alloy production. The UK’s Less Common Metals (opens in a new tab) (LCM), a rare earth alloy producer, is building a new €110 million plant in France to make NdFeB magnet alloys. LCM’s existing UK plant is one of the few non-Chinese sources of these alloys, and the French project (backed by the government) will expand Europe’s capacity to supply raw magnet materials.
Additionally, HyProMag (opens in a new tab) (UK/Germany), linked to Canada’s Mkango Resources (opens in a new tab) (MKA.V), is scaling up recycling plants that extract NdFeB powder from scrap to make new magnets.
Mkgango does not directly own HyProMag. Maginito Limited (opens in a new tab), a company owned 79.4% by Mkango (opens in a new tab) and 20.6% by CoTec (opens in a new tab), owns 100% of HyProMag. HyProMag USA (opens in a new tab), a separate entity, is a 50/50 joint venture between CoTec and HyProMa.
All these efforts, from Neo’s factory to LCM’s alloys and recycling startups, align with the EU Critical Raw Materials Act (opens in a new tab) goals: to have 20-30% of European magnet demand met domestically within a few years as we have informed readers. Still, by 2026, Europe’s new magnet output will likely only cover a single-digit percentage of its needs so that China will remain a major source in the short term.
United States: From Mine-to-Magnet Ambitions
The U.S., which completely lost its magnet manufacturing industry in past decades, is now rebuilding capacity with unprecedented public and private investment. The poster child is MP Materials (opens in a new tab) (NYSE:MP) – a U.S.-based miner (Mountain Pass, CA) that has transitioned into a magnet manufacturer. MP is constructing a factory in Fort Worth, Texas, with an initial 1,000 t/yr NdFeB capacity (about 1% of current global output), slated to begin production soon. General Motors has a supply agreement to purchase magnets from this plant, anchoring demand. MP’s vision is full vertical integration: mining Nd-Pr at Mountain Pass, refining it domestically, and making finished magnets – thereby creating a U.S. “mine-to-magnet” pipeline.
To accelerate the effort in response to heightened concerns about the Trump administration, the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) in mid-2025 took a 15% equity stake in MP Materials through a $400 million investment, as reported by REEx, along with other news outlets such as Reuters (opens in a new tab). This landmark public-private partnership (Washington’s first direct ownership in a rare earth company) will help fund a second, larger magnet factory in the U.S. with 10,000 t/yr capacity by 2028 (assuming flawless execution).
In effect, the Pentagon became MP’s largest shareholder to ensure the U.S. has a domestic source of strategic magnets. Following on the heels of the DoD deal, Apple inked a $500 million, multi-year agreement with MP to secure rare earth magnets free of Chinese materials. Apple will pre-pay for magnets starting in 2027 and is co-developing recycling and novel magnet tech with MP – a move aimed at shoring up supply chain security after China’s recent export curbs. These deals caused MP’s stock to surge, reflecting investor optimism that Westerndemand will backstop new magnet capacity.
Beyond MP Materials, the U.S. magnet scene encompasses both startups and veteran companies. USA Rare Earth (NASDAQ: USARE), for instance, opened a pilot NdFeB magnet plant (the “Innovation Lab”) in Stillwater, Oklahoma in 2025, using refurbished equipment acquired from Hitachi’s now-closed U.S. magnet facility.
USARE produced its first test batches of sintered magnets and plans to scale to ~1,200 t/yr by 2026, with a longer-term goal of 4,000+ t/yr per REEx.
Notably, USARE is also developing the Round Top deposit in Texas, which contains abundant heavy rare earths, aiming for an end-to-end supply (though Round Top mining is a few years out with some rumblings of challenges). Note USARE’s CEO informed REEx in an interview (opens in a new tab) that the firm would target the small-to-mid-sized market first.
E-VAC Magnetics, a subsidiary of the German company VAC Group, is establishing its first U.S. manufacturing facility in Sumter County, South Carolina, to produce rare-earth permanent magnets. This project, with a planned investment exceeding half a billion dollars and creating 300 jobs, aims to bolster the U.S. supply chain for critical materials used in electric vehicles, defense, and renewable energy applications. The facility will be located in the Pocotaligo Industrial Park (opens in a new tab).
Noveon Magnetics (opens in a new tab) (Texas-based startup), has been producing NdFeB magnets on a smaller scale since 2020 and raised $75 million in 2023 to expand its plant to ~2,000 t/yr capacity REEx reported.
In 2025, Noveon scored a five-year contract to supply Japan’s Nidec Corporation (opens in a new tab) with 1,000 tons of magnets (200 t/yr) for high-end motors– a significant validation of its product quality. The U.S. DoD has also funded niche firms like TDA Magnetics (opens in a new tab) (for specialized alloys) and supported Electron Energy Corp (opens in a new tab). – a longtime SmCo magnet supplier for defense – to scale up under new ownership.
All told, by 2025–2026 the United States and Europe could each have a few thousand tonnes per year ofnon-Chinese magnet capacity coming online according to our accounts.
This is a start at loosening China’s stranglehold. Companies like MP, Neo, VAC (in Germany/U.S.), and USARE are essentially rebuilding a magnet industry that had withered outside China.
Investors can find opportunities across this emerging value chain – from mining stocks and refiners to magnet makers and recyclers.
However, it’s essential to temper expectations: even if all these projects meet their targets, China will likely still produce 85–90% of the world’s magnets in the late 2020s. It’s very important to understand the situation in its totality. New Western plants face scale-up risks, higher production costs, and the challenge of securing reliable rare earth feedstock (much of which, ironically, still comes from China today). Government subsidies and guaranteed offtake deals (like GM’s and Apple’s) are crucial for these ventures’ economics. Investors should watch for partnership announcements, progress reports on construction, and policy support as key indicators that these non-China supply chains are advancing.
Defense Sector: Heavy Rare Earths and a Tough Battle for Independence
One area where the “mine-to-magnet” bottleneck is especially acute is the defense sector, due to its reliance on heavy rare earth elements. Dysprosium (Dy) and Terbium (Tb) – heavy REEs added to NdFeB magnets for high-temperature stability – are critical for missiles, fighter jets, radars, and other military hardware.
Yet virtually all of these heavy rare earths come from China or its sphere. Analysts estimate roughly 50% of the global heavy REE supply originates in conflict-ridden Myanmar (mined in primitive, unregulated conditions), and nearly 100% of heavy rare earth oxides are refined in China. See REEx’s “_Heavy Rare Earths: The Defense Sector’s Hidden Vulnerability.”_
In other words, the West currently has zero operational capacity to separate heavy rare earths like Dy/Tb on its own soil. Even with the MP Materials and DoD announcement, this will remain a challenge for at least a couple more years — and full resilience is likely several years away, at a minimum.
This dependence is an alarming vulnerability – as one NATO study noted, none of the heavy REEs are produced in North America, forcing the U.S. to import all of them from China.
Recent policy moves show a scramble to close this gap. The U.S. National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) (opens in a new tab) will ban the use of Chinese-origin NdFeB magnets in most Defense Department platforms by end of 2026.
Furthermore, the Pentagon has expanded “Buy American” rules to treat rare earths from allied countries (e.g., Australia or the EU) as domestic, thereby widening sourcing options. These rules mean that defense contractors (Raytheon, Lockheed, etc.) must purge Chinese magnets, leading to supply chain audits and qualification of new suppliers. For example, following a 2022 incident in which an F-35 jet delivery was halted due to a component containing a Chinese magnet, contractors are urgently seeking alternatives.
This has prompted more DoD direct investment: beyond the MP deal, the Pentagon has used Defense Production Act funds and grants (over $439 million since 2020 plus the recent MP activity) to support mining, separation, and magnet production projects in the U.S. This includes funding heavy rare earth separation plants – e.g., Lynas is building a Dy/Tb separation facility in Texas with $258M in U.S. funding – so that by late 2020s the U.S. might produce its own Tb/Dy for magnets.
Despite these efforts, heavy rare earths remain the toughest part of the supply chain to localize. China’s grip is entrenched: it produces ~70% of all rare earths and processes around 98-100% of medium- and heavy-rare earths worldwide. Crucially, China’s dominance extends indirectly via Myanmar, which has become Beijing’s “secret weapon” for heavies. Unrest in Myanmar’s Kachin state or a Chinese decision to stop buying Myanmar ore could immediately choke off half the world’s Dy/Tb supply, spiking prices and potentially halting Western missile production. This scenario nearly unfolded in 2025 when fighting in Myanmar disrupted mining, and Chinese imports of heavy rare earth feedstock plummeted by ~50%, sending dysprosium prices soaring.
The West can mine light rare earths and even make magnets, but without a secure heavy REE source, high-performance magnets for defense (and some EV motors) will still rely on China’s supply chain. For investors tracking defense-oriented rare earth projects: pay close attention to those that can produce Dy/Tb (e.g., Round Top in Texas by USARE, Brown Range in Australia, or recycling initiatives) – these could become strategically invaluable if they come to fruition. Brazilian Rare Earths (opens in a new tab) (BRE.XA) has some promise for both light and heavy rare earths.
Key Magnet Makers Outside China: Public vs. Private
As the ex-China rare earth magnet ecosystem grows, who are the major players investors should know about? Below is a selection of prominent magnet manufacturers outside China, with their status:
| Company | Target | Notes |
| MP Materials (U.S.) – Public (NYSE: MP) | Vertical integration from mine-to-magnet; backed by DoD and Apple deals | Late 2025: Texas site ramping to ~1,000 t/yr NdFeB magnets by end-2025; 2028: new “10X” plant (~10,000 t/yr) operational* |
| Neo Performance Materials (Canada) – Public (TSX: NEO). | Global processor with new EU magnet plant | 2025: Phase 1 (~2,000 t/yr) operational; H1 2026: sample magnets for approval; Late 2026: mass production begins |
| Shin-Etsu Chemical (Japan) – Public (TSE) | Major NdFeB magnet producer and supplier of rare earth alloys | Currently commercial scale; no major new ramp planned—continuing at existing capacity |
| Hitachi Metals (Japan) – Private (now Proterial under Bain Capital-led ownership) | Inventor of NdFeB magnets; still a technology leader | Currently stable production at existing volumes; incremental improvements, no new plant builds announced |
| Vacuumschmelze “VAC” (Germany) | Acquired by private equity ARA Partners. Leading European magnet & alloy producer; expanding to U.S. with DoD-funded plant. | By 2026–2027: U.S. plant under construction in South Carolina; expected operational around then |
| Dowlais Group – GKN (UK/Germany) – Public (LSE: DWL) | Entering magnet production via GKN; auto industry ties. | 2025–2026: pilot line in Germany; full production TBD—likely late 2026+ |
| USA Rare Earth (U.S.) – Private (SPAC plans announced) | Developing U.S. mine and magnet plant focusing on heavy REEs | Early 2026: Innovations Lab commercial line (~1,200 t/yr) begins; full scale by end-2026 (~4,800 t/yr) |
| Noveon Magnetics (U.S.) – Private (venture-funded startup) | One of the only U.S. producers of sintered NdFeB magnets | Ongoing: producing since 2020; no public timeline—but partnership with Nidec suggests current low-volume production ramping over 2025–2026 |
| Star Group Industrial (S. Korea) – Private | Emerging Korean magnet supplier (partnering with POSCO on U.S. plant). | Likely 2026–2027: U.S. magnet facility expected; public timeline not yet available |
| VACOMAG (Australia) – Private/Public (consortium) | Planned Australian magnet venture (in early stages), leveraging local rare earths | Early Stage: no firm timeline; likely late 2020s pending project clarity |
*assumes flawless execution—REEx suspects 2029-2030 if not later for full scale out
**Note: Several Chinese magnet makers – not listed above – are among the world’s largest, but all are either state-owned or domestically listed in China. Global investors cannot easily access them, and China’s state-led system backs their dominance.
Outlook: Bridging the Magnet Gap
The race is on to break China’s stranglehold from mine to magnet. In the next five years, dozens of projects across allied nations will attempt to scale up production of rare earth oxides, metals, and magnets. This will likely put a dent – albeit a small one – in China’s market share. For example, MP Materials’ new factories (with government and Apple support) aim to supply a notable slice of U.S. demand by 2027–2028, and Neo’s Estonia plant will give European automakers a local option.
These are significant milestones: a few years ago, such integrated magnet supply chains outside China were practically nonexistent. Now, with strategic capital and political will behind them, the ex-China magnet industry is finally coming to life. However, investors should approach this sector with a realistic perspective. The real bottleneck – manufacturing magnets at China’s scale and cost – won’t be solved overnight. China’s incumbents enjoy huge economies of scale and tight control of upstream materials, which will keep pressure on prices. Many new magnet plants in the West will take time to ramp up and could face technical hurdles or delays (magnet production is as much an art as science, often requiring years to fine-tune quality at volume). As REEx has frequently reported, the search for talent remains a challenge, and a more integrated industrial policy is necessary for accelerated growth.
Heavy rare earth sourcing remains the Achilles’ heel of non-Chinese magnet production—particularly if global supplies of dysprosium and terbium (Dy/Tb) remain constrained. Given their strategic importance for high-performance military applications, this vulnerability is likely to give China continued bargaining power over Washington in trade talks for some years to come, even amid the assertive “Liberation Day” industrial push launched by President Trump. That is, unless a more intensive industrial policy for critical minerals (including rare earths) is adopted by Trump.
That said, the momentum to regionalize rare earth supply chains is unprecedented and likely irreversible, given national security and sustainability to drivers. For investors, this means new opportunities in companies that successfully carve out a niche in the non-China magnet market – be it through superior technology, guaranteed offtake contracts, or government support. The next few years will reveal which projects can move from pilot phase to commercial success. Those that do could help reshape a global industry and offer significant upside as demand for rare earth magnets doubles with the clean energy and defense build-out. The world’s magnet needs are only growing; the question is how much of that growth will be captured by emerging players outside China versus the established giants within. In the end, solving the “mine to magnet” bottleneck will require aligning resource investment with manufacturing know-how – a challenging, but potentially rewarding, balance that savvy investors will be watching closely.
Sources: Key data and insights were sourced from Rare Earth Exchanges industry analyses and news—we now have the most robust data and information repository concerning rare earth element supply chain; Reuters reports reuters.com (opens in a new tab), and U.S. Department of Defense and CSIS reports on rare earth supply chains. These illustrate the current dominance of China in rare earth magnets and the significant efforts underway globally to establish a competitive and secure supply chain outside China.
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