Rare Earth Exchanges

The Ascendancy of China Rare Earth Dominance and the West’s Counter Move to Disrupt, An Unfolding Situation

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Hightlights

  • China dominates the global rare earth industry through strategic policies and resource management.
  • The West is working to disrupt this dominance by diversifying supply chains and investing in technologies.
  • The landscape for rare earth materials is evolving due to geopolitical and economic shifts.

It’s no secret the People’s Republic of China (China) is the dominant global player in the rare earth industry, controlling the majority of the world’s supply. According to the U.S. Department of Commerce in 2023, China controlled nearly 60% of rare earth mining operations, over 85% of processing capacity, and greater than 90% of permanent magnet production. But how did what is now the world’s second most populated country and second biggest economy pull such a dominant position off? And what companies dominate this business? And how are the U.S., Europe, and other nations disrupting this order today?

First, China was able to control the rare earth materials market via a combination of strategic resource management, industrial policies, and global economic factors. Importantly, as well are the natural resources located within that nation. In fact, China holds around 37% of the world’s rare earth reserves, particularly in Inner Mongolia, where the Bayan Obo mine (opens in a new tab) is one of the largest deposits of rare earth elements.

Importantly, China’s dominant position with rare earths arises from specific and distinct government policies along with targeted investment, all done with long-term strategic planning.

The Chinese government has heavily subsidized its rare earth industry, providing financial support for mining, refining, and processing. It has invested in building infrastructure and technologies for the extraction and processing of rare earths, ensuring the country’s dominance in the entire value chain. In this way, the Chinese state serves as an underwriter ongoing, a concerted financial strategy no Western nation would have been able to pull off during the time.

Ascendancy to Rare Earth Materials Dominance

In the 1980s and 1990s, China made rare earths a strategic priority, focusing on becoming the world leader in this sector. As part of its “Made in China 2025 (opens in a new tab)” industrial plan, rare earth elements have been crucial to supporting industries like electronics, electric vehicles, and renewable energy.

China’s perceived advantage in this space as compared to the U.S. stems from several key factors, which are rooted in political, cultural, and structural differences between the two countries. From the Chinese centralized and long-term planning and state-led industrial policy to strategic use of a mixed market and state-run economic apparatus, all came into play leading to the current dominance of rare earth materials. As the Chinese climbed up the rare earth material ladder, cheap production costs became a fundamental goal. After all, that nation’s ability to produce lower than all else would be a key ingredient for market dominance. The rare earth extractors and processors could price Western players out of business.

All this above means that China’s rare earth industry benefits from lower labor and environmental costs. While rare earth mining and processing can be environmentally harmful, China has been able to produce rare earths more cheaply than Western countries, which have stricter environmental regulations. This price advantage allowed Chinese companies to undercut global competitors in the 1990s and early 2000s, forcing many rare earth producers in other countries to close down or reduce output.

But other factors came into play with China’s rare earth ascendancy. For example, the vertical integration throughout the value chain led to advantage.

For example, China controls not only the mining of rare earth elements but also their processing and refining, which are essential to turning raw materials into usable products like magnets, batteries, and other advanced technologies. Such vertical integration, along with the other forces highlighted herein, enabled China to dominate the global supply chain for rare earths, as it processes over 85% of the world’s rare earth oxides.

Exploiting the Situation

Once China moved into the proverbial driver’s seat with rare earths, a series of actions, activities, and policies further bolstered and reinforced dominance.

For example, the country throughout its rare earth ascendancy exploited various tools such as export restrictions and quotas. Using export quotas and tariffs strategically to maintain control over the global supply and influence prices. A case in point in 2010, China restricted exports of rare earths, causing global prices to skyrocket and leaving other countries scrambling to find alternative suppliers. As described below, predominance starts to wane as post-COVID-19 Western governments sought to reconfigure various supply chains including rare earths. For example, as reported in Nikkei Asia (opens in a new tab), nations such as Australia are opening up mines which is leading to lower prices and less outright leverage. An important point given the importance of lack of competition contributing to China’s long-term scheme of rare earth ascendancy.

Historically, countries like the United States were significant producers of rare earths (e.g., the Mountain Pass mine (opens in a new tab) in California). But the rise of cheap Chinese production led many countries to scale back their rare earth mining operations, further consolidating China’s market control. In the absence of significant competition, China became the world’s leading rare earth supplier.

What technological advancements were made?

Overall, as part of the Made in China initiative, investment in innovative breakthroughs to help further advance rare earth ascendancy cannot be overlooked. China has invested in improving the technological capabilities of its rare earth industry, from more efficient extraction techniques to advanced refining processes. These advancements have made Chinese rare earth products competitive on a global scale, both in terms of price and quality.

China has made significant technological advancements in its rare earth industry, allowing it to dominate the global market, at least up until this point.

Rare Earth Exchanges break down some of these advancements.

Advancements Summary
Refining and Separation Techniques China has developed more efficient and cost-effective refining and separation technologies, which are essential for extracting individual rare earth elements from raw ore. These processes require sophisticated chemical techniques because rare earth elements often coexist in the same ore and must be separated with high precision.

Also advances in solvent extraction and ion-exchange processes have helped Chinese companies increase the yield and purity of rare earth elements while reducing costs.
Recycling and Environmental Management China has made strides in rare earth recycling technologies. Given the environmental impacts of rare earth mining, such as water pollution and radioactive waste, China has developed methods to recycle rare earth materials from electronic waste and industrial byproducts. This not only reduces environmental harm but also helps secure a sustainable supply of rare earths domestically. Additionally, China has implemented technologies for waste management and pollution control in its rare earth industry, though environmental issues remain a concern
Rare Earth Permanent Magnets China leads in the development of high-performance rare earth permanent magnets, which are essential for electric vehicles, wind turbines, and many electronic devices. These magnets, made from neodymium, dysprosium, and praseodymium, have high magnetic strength and are critical in reducing the size and weight of modern electronic products.

Also, Innovations have focused on improving the efficiency and thermal stability of these magnets, which are increasingly in demand for clean energy technologies.
Advanced Metallurgy and Alloy Development An advancement in rare earth metallurgy, which involves developing new alloys for high-tech applications, cannot be overlooked. Rare earth metals like neodymium and lanthanum are vital for making superalloys used in aerospace, defense, and electronics.

Such alloys have enhanced properties like increased strength, resistance to heat, and corrosion resistance, making them suitable for high-stress environments such as jet engines and industrial turbines.
Rare Earth-Based Catalysts Chinese scientists have pioneered the use of rare earths in catalysis, particularly in automotive exhaust systems and industrial chemical processes. For example, cerium-based catalysts are widely used in automotive catalytic converters to reduce harmful emissions.
Rare Earth Applications in Electronics and Optics China has also developed rare earth applications in advanced optics and lasers. Elements like yttrium and europium are essential for phosphors in lighting and display technologies, such as LEDs and flat-screen displays. These innovations are critical for the growing electronics and renewable energy markets.

It must be noted that China is also a leader in optical fiber technologies that incorporate rare earth elements, contributing to advancements in telecommunications and other high-tech sectors.

Research and Development (R&D) Investment

The Chinese government has heavily invested in R&D for rare earth applications, aiming to create indigenous innovations and reduce dependency on foreign technologies. Through collaborations between state-owned enterprises, universities, and private firms, China has developed specialized technologies that enhance the production and use of rare earth elements in high-tech industries.

China’s focus on technological self-sufficiency in rare earths has allowed it to maintain a leading position in advanced technologies while ensuring that its rare earth industry continues to innovate.

These advancements, coupled with China’s focus on building a complete supply chain—from mining to advanced material production—have enabled it to maintain its global leadership in the rare earth market. By focusing on building a comprehensive rare earth industry and taking advantage of its large reserves, China has established a near-monopoly on the global market, which it continues to leverage for economic and geopolitical influence.

Who are some of the players in China?

The topic of this massive industry and accompanying value chain could take up a book. Here Rare Earth Exchanges provides a brief summary of key players in the rare earth material extraction business.

Company/Org Summary Active Areas
China Northern Rare Earth Group High-Tech Co. Ltd. (opens in a new tab) The largest, rare earth company in China and the world by production. It specializes in the production and processing of rare earth materials, including neodymium, praseodymium, and lanthanum. Primarily involved in the mining, refining, and separation of rare earth elements Based in Baotou, Inner Mongolia, near some of the largest, rare earth deposits.
China Minmetals Corporation (opens in a new tab) A state-owned enterprise involved in mining, production, and trading of various metals, including rare earths. Through its subsidiary, China Minmetals Rare Earth Co. Ltd., it is a major player in the rare earth industry. The company focuses on mining, processing, and trading of rare earth elements, including both light and heavy rare earths. Active in exploration and production, with interests in rare earth resources both in China and abroad.
Chinalco Rare Earth & Metals Co. Ltd. (opens in a new tab) (Aluminum Corporation of China) A subsidiary of Aluminum Corporation of China (Chinalco), focusing on rare earth mining and production. It is a significant producer of heavy rare earths such as dysprosium and terbium. The group focuses on rare earth mining, refining, and production, with particular strength in heavy rare earths. Known for its strong government backing and extensive resources
China Rare Earth Holdings Limited (opens in a new tab) One of the oldest and most diversified companies in China’s rare earth industry, involved in both the production and processing of rare earths and refractory materials. Group downstream focuses on the making of rare earth magnets, phosphors, and other applications Engaged in the production and trading of rare earth oxides, metals, and alloys.
Ganzhou Rare Earth Group (opens in a new tab) A major producer of heavy rare earth elements, based in Ganzhou, Jiangxi Province, which is rich in ionic clay rare earth deposits. This company focuses on heavy rare earths like dysprosium, which are critical for high-performance magnets and other advanced technologies The company is located in Ganzhou, Jiangxi. Today their main business is production and sales of the alloys for Rare-Earth Magnets.

These companies, and others not listed, benefit from government policies aimed at maintaining China’s dominance in the global rare earth supply chain. China’s rare earth production is strategically important for industries like electronics, renewable energy, and defense, where rare earth elements are critical for the manufacture of components like magnets and batteries. But as Rare Earth Exchanges cites above, the world of rare earth materials becomes more dynamic, decentralized, ripe for change.

How is the rare earth materials world changing?

The rare earth extraction and associated supply chain enters turbulent times, with disruption and change on the agenda.  Much of this change results from the   response to the disruptions caused by COVID-19 and associated supply chain challenges.
A confluence of forces converges, driven to great extent by western nations, to disrupt and diversify rare earth material markets.
The pandemic highlighted the vulnerabilities in global supply chains, particularly for critical materials like rare earth elements. China, which dominates rare earth mining and refining, faced early production slowdowns due to lockdowns, disrupting global supplies.
Consequently, countries such as the U.S., Japan, and members of the European Union have intensified efforts to diversify their supply chains and reduce reliance on China. These efforts include reopening domestic mines, investing in refining capacity, and forming partnerships with other countries rich in rare earths, such as Australia and Canada. Enter this new boom ongoing.
The strategic importance of this sector cannot be overstated.  The global scarcity of rare earth elements during the pandemic emphasized their importance in high-tech industries like defense, renewable energy, and electronics. Governments, particularly in the U.S. and Europe, began treating rare earths as strategic resources and took steps to secure long-term supplies.
The U.S. Department of Defense, (opens in a new tab) for instance, increased funding to domestic rare earth mining projects and signed agreements with companies for rare earth processing facilities.
Plus, in markets across the world after the pandemic the growth in recycling and sustainability initiatives could challenge China’s unique position.
The post-pandemic period has seen a growing interest in rare earth recycling technologies to reduce environmental impacts and improve sustainability. Recycling rare earths from electronic waste (e-waste) and other industrial products has become a priority to address both environmental concerns and supply chain risks.
Movements to “reshore” domestic extraction and production of rare earths now unfold in dynamic and palpable ways. Several countries now prioritize domestic production of rare earths. For example, the U.S. is making efforts to reduce its dependence on China by increasing domestic mining at places like the Mountain Pass mine in California as reported (opens in a new tab) by National Defense (opens in a new tab). Additionally, Australia has also expanded its rare earth mining projects, becoming a key non-China producer.  Earlier this year for example as reported in Nikkei Asia, Australia announced (opens in a new tab) it would back a second major rare earth project by providing a loan of $550 million to Arafura (opens in a new tab), an Australian mining corporation to build a mine and processing facility in the Northern Territory.
Also, countries like Japan and South Korea are similarly investing in domestic and alternative suppliers and ware forming agreements with countries like Vietnam and Malaysia to diversify their rare earth imports.
Also, countries and companies are investing more in circular economy solutions, which aim to recover and reuse rare earth elements from discarded products, potentially reducing the need for new mining activities.
Ongoing technological innovation in extraction and processing in the West, Europe, other parts of Asia and the Americas must be watched carefully as well.
In response to supply disruptions and the global push for cleaner production, there has been a greater emphasis on innovation in rare earth mining technologies. More environmentally friendly extraction methods, such as bioleaching (using bacteria to extract rare earths) and ionic clay mining, have gained traction.
Processing technologies are also evolving to reduce pollution, energy use, and water consumption, with governments and private sectors investing in cleaner rare earth refining processes.

Rising Prices and Global Competition

The demand for rare earth elements, especially in industries like electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy (wind turbines), surged after COVID-19, driving up prices. This rise in prices has made rare earth mining more attractive and profitable, spurring new exploration and development projects worldwide. And of course, the urge of the U.S. and others to break China’s dominance in this sector.
Competition among nations and companies to secure rare earths for clean energy technologies has intensified, leading to more geopolitical considerations around rare earth supply chains.
The rare earth mining industry has seen increased strategic importance, more focus on sustainability, and a shift toward domestic production and diversification in response to the supply chain vulnerabilities exposed by the pandemic, and frankly, the moves China made during the previous couple decades to dominate this space. This has led to an evolving landscape in rare earth production, with many countries trying to reduce reliance on China​.

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