Highlights
- Copper accounts for 82–83% of total modeled mineral mass, with grid transmission driving 64% of that demand
- Grain-oriented electrical steel for transformers is identified as a major potential supply constraint
- For gallium, germanium, graphite, and rare earths, processing capacity and supply-chain concentration pose greater risks than geological scarcity
- Researchers built a bottom-up demand model covering 20 minerals across compute, thermal, and power systems from 2025 to 2035
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