The 22nd International Rare Earths Conference in Seoul gathered global miners, magnet makers, and automakers to tackle supply-chain bottlenecks and China
Element Profile
Scandium
Symbol
Sc
Atomic number
21
Group
Light rare earth
Properties
Density
2.99 g/cm³
Melting point
1541 °C
Boiling point
2836 °C
Crustal abundance
22 ppm
Supply Risk
Supply risk
High
Geological scarcity
Low
Primary economic driver
Aerospace alloys & fuel cells
Overview
About Scandium
Scandium (Sc, atomic number 21) is a light, silvery metal counted among the rare earth elements. Small amounts of it make aluminum alloys stronger and easier to weld, and its oxide goes into the electrolyte of solid oxide fuel cells. Scandium is common in Earth's crust, but it almost never concentrates enough to mine. Nearly all of it is recovered as a byproduct of processing other metals.
What scandium is
Scandium is a soft, silvery metal that takes on a yellow or pinkish tint in air, according to Los Alamos National Laboratory. Chemically it behaves much like yttrium and the lanthanides, and the U.S. Geological Survey counts it as one of the 17 rare earth elements. REEx groups it with the light rare earths, although classification schemes differ on where scandium belongs. Scandium almost always takes a +3 oxidation state (RSC).
Scandium is only slightly denser than aluminum. It melts at 1,541 °C, while aluminum melts at about 660 °C (Royal Society of Chemistry data for aluminum). The physical properties listed on this page are from the Royal Society of Chemistry periodic table.
Scandium is not a scarce element. USGS figures put its average crustal abundance at about 22 parts per million, and the agency notes that it is more abundant in the crust than lead. By USGS estimates, only cerium, neodymium, lanthanum and yttrium are more abundant among the rare earths. The difficulty is that scandium spreads thinly through more than 100 minerals instead of forming ore bodies of its own (USGS).
Discovery and name: predicted before it was found
In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev's periodic table left a gap between calcium and titanium for an unknown element he called "ekaboron" (LANL). Swedish chemist Lars Fredrik Nilson of the University of Uppsala found it in 1879 in euxenite, a complex mineral, and named it after Scandia, the Latin name for Scandinavia. Scandium metal itself was not produced until 1937, according to the Royal Society of Chemistry.
Aluminum-scandium alloys first flourished in the Soviet Union, driven mainly by military demand, according to a 2003 review in JOM.
Why aluminum alloys need scandium
A small scandium addition changes how aluminum behaves. Scandium forms tiny particles of Al3Sc inside the metal. A 2007 review by J. Røyset names three effects of those particles. They refine the grain when the metal is cast or welded, they harden the alloy, and they help it keep a stable grain structure.
The JOM review reported that scandium-modified alloys gave stronger welds without hot cracking and resisted corrosion well. It said the alloys could be used in aerospace, sporting goods and transportation, including cars.
Industrial use has stayed narrow. In 2007, Røyset wrote that use was limited to a few aerospace applications and sporting equipment. He added that wider use depended on scandium becoming cheaper. The Royal Society of Chemistry gives high-end bicycle frames and baseball bats as examples. USGS lists titanium alloys, high-strength aluminum alloys and carbon-fiber materials as possible substitutes in high-performance alloy uses (USGS).
Solid oxide fuel cells and other uses
USGS reported that the principal uses for scandium in 2025 were aerospace alloys and solid oxide fuel cells. The fuel cells supply large-scale power and backup power for critical infrastructure (USGS).
In these fuel cells, scandium oxide is added to a zirconia ceramic electrolyte. Scandia-stabilized zirconia has high ionic conductivity, according to research presented by the German Aerospace Center (DLR). That makes it a candidate electrolyte for cells that run at lower temperatures than the conventional yttria-stabilized version. Bloom Energy, a fuel cell maker, says its scandium-doped electrolyte lets its cells perform better, last longer and use less fuel. That is the company's own claim.
- Lighting. Scandium iodide added to mercury vapor lamps produces light that resembles sunlight, used for stadiums and TV studios (LANL, RSC).
- Electronics, lasers and military alloys. USGS lists electronics, lasers, ceramics and alloys for military equipment among scandium's smaller uses (USGS). Tech Times reported in October 2026 that scandium is used in next-generation chips and 5G devices.
Where scandium comes from: other metals' process streams
USGS reported that scandium was produced only as a byproduct in 2025, mainly from nickel and titanium process streams and from old tailings and residues (USGS). Recent USGS reports also list zirconium, cobalt, rare earth, iron ore, apatite and uranium processing as sources (USGS).
In Quebec, Rio Tinto recovers scandium oxide from the waste streams of titanium dioxide production at Sorel-Tracy, without additional mining (Rio Tinto, May 2022). In the Philippines, scandium is recovered from nickel laterite processing and then refined into oxide in Japan (USGS). China, the leading producer in 2025 according to USGS, has recovered scandium from titanium, zirconium, rare earth and iron ore processing (USGS). Kazakhstan, Russia and Ukraine have also supplied scandium, largely from uranium operations (USGS).
USGS estimated 2025 global production at about 80 metric tons of scandium oxide. The United States did not mine or recover any scandium that year and relied entirely on imports (USGS).
China's export controls on scandium
On April 4, 2025, China's Ministry of Commerce and customs agency placed scandium under export licensing in Announcement No. 18. The list covers scandium metal, its aluminum, magnesium and copper alloys, scandium targets, scandium oxide and scandium compounds.
As of December 2025, the April controls remained in effect, although China had begun issuing general export licenses to selected exporters, according to USGS. China's suspension of its broader October 2025 controls did not cover the April list. As of October 2026, the April controls were still active, and Tech Times reported that licensing delays had pushed U.S. chipmakers to seek government help.
Supply outside China (as of October 2026)
- Rio Tinto, Quebec. In September 2025, the U.S. Defense Logistics Agency announced plans to buy scandium oxide for the National Defense Stockpile from the Sorel-Tracy operation over five years (USGS). In November 2025, the Canada Growth Fund agreed to invest about C$25 million to expand capacity there to 9 metric tons a year (Rio Tinto).
- Sunrise Energy Metals, Syerston, New South Wales. In August 2026, the Pentagon's Office of Strategic Capital made a conditional loan commitment of up to $400 million for a project designed to mine scandium as its main product. REEx noted that the financing still had to close and that customers still had to qualify the material.
- Other projects. Australia granted a mining license for the Nyngan scandium project in October 2025. In the United States, a $10 million award in August 2025 from the U.S. Department of Defense (now the Department of War) backed a mine-to-master-alloy supply chain at the Elk Creek project in Nebraska (USGS).
Recycling and recovery from waste
The Royal Society of Chemistry puts scandium's recycling rate below 10%, and USGS reported no U.S. scandium recycling in 2025. Several new supply efforts aim to recover scandium from industrial waste. In November 2025, the Department of War awarded $29.9 million to a company developing U.S. supply of scandium and gallium, partly to build a demonstration plant that separates scandium from existing industrial waste (USGS).
Why the price is hard to see
Scandium does not trade on a commodity exchange. As a REEx analysis put it in July 2026, there is no transparent exchange price. The prices USGS publishes are ex-works China values, some of them from the price reporter Asian Metal (USGS). Any quoted figure reflects one market and one date.
What drives scandium demand and supply
In 2025, demand rested mostly on solid oxide fuel cells and aerospace alloys, according to USGS. The July 2026 REEx analysis flagged a risk in that pattern, since much of the expected growth rests on one fuel cell maker. Supply depends on how China administers its licenses and on whether new byproduct plants and the first dedicated scandium projects reach steady output.
Frequently asked questions
What is scandium used for?
Mainly in aluminum-scandium alloys for aerospace and sporting goods, and as a dopant in the electrolyte of solid oxide fuel cells. Smaller uses include electronics, military alloys, lasers and scandium iodide lamps.
Is scandium rare?
No. USGS puts its average crustal abundance at about 22 parts per million, more than lead. Scandium is hard to produce because it rarely concentrates in deposits rich enough to mine.
Where does scandium come from?
Almost all scandium is recovered as a byproduct of processing titanium dioxide, nickel laterite, zirconium and other ores, or from old tailings. As of 2025, USGS named China the leading producer, with smaller supplies from Japan, the Philippines and Canada.
Does China restrict scandium exports?
Yes. Since April 4, 2025, exporting scandium metal, alloys, oxide and compounds from China has required a license under MOFCOM Announcement No. 18. Those controls remained in force as of October 2026.
Why does scandium improve aluminum?
Scandium forms tiny Al3Sc particles that refine the grain, harden the alloy and keep its structure stable through heat and welding. The result is stronger aluminum that welds without hot cracking.
Primary Uses
- Aluminum-scandium alloys for aerospace, defense and sporting goods
- Solid oxide fuel cell electrolytes (scandia-stabilized zirconia)
- Electronics, including chips and 5G devices
- Scandium iodide lamps for stadium and studio lighting
- Lasers, ceramics and military alloys
Producing Projects
Companies
Found in Products
REEx Intelligence
Recent Articles
China's 2026 CSRE Suzhou conference reveals a coordinated strategy to cut heavy rare earth use, boost recycling, and apply AI to magnet manufacturing.
Solvent extraction dominates rare earth separation globally, with China controlling 90%+ of refining. Learn why Western challengers are rebuilding—not
China's GRINM Yijin displayed 12-inch semiconductor sputtering targets at Shanghai and Shenzhen expos, signaling Beijing's push into high-value chipmaking
Meta Critical Minerals appoints West Point advisor John Melkon as Wyoming drilling advances, but REEx warns mineral economics and financing remain the
NioCorp secures a 15-year Traxys offtake deal for Elk Creek, but a $1.85 billion financing gap still threatens the Nebraska critical minerals project.
Zijin Mining and GRINM Group explore biometallurgy and critical metals recovery cooperation, signaling China's push to extract more value from existing mines.
China Northern Rare Earth achieves ultra-dry scandium chloride below 50 ppm moisture, signaling China's growing edge in specialized rare earth chemicals.
Lockheed Martin faces a 2027 DFARS deadline requiring rare-earth magnet provenance traced to the mine, risking F-35, THAAD, and Javelin production timelines.
Chinese researchers map how rare earth elements like Gd, Y, and Nd boost magnesium alloy strength and corrosion resistance for aerospace and automotive use.
Supra Elemental Recovery wins a DoD SBIR contract to test high-purity scandium extraction from industrial waste using 3D-printed supramolecular cartridges.
China's ACREI 316-member roster reveals a mine-to-machine rare earth industrial ecosystem that the West's mine-to-magnet ambitions have yet to match.
The Xi-Trump summit extended trade détente but left China's rare-earth export controls intact, keeping Western supply chains exposed to Beijing's
Elon Musk praises China on state TV as Beijing's rare-earth chokepoints constrain U.S. industrial power. What investors must understand about Great Powers
China is building an industrial recycling system for rare-earth magnets, setting national standards for traceability, carbon footprint, and certified
Rare Earths Americas reports 22m at 2,298 ppm TREO at Brazil's Homer-A, but no resource estimate or metallurgical data yet confirms economic viability.
The Dominican Republic aims to declare first rare-earth reserves by mid-2027 from the Ávila project, backed by a new U.S.-Dominican critical-minerals framework.
GRINM and Baogang Group align Party governance with full-chain rare earth strategy at Bayan Obo, compounding China's advantage from mining to advanced
Baogang Group pilots waste-dump pre-enrichment at Bayan Obo, signaling China's push to extract more rare earths and metals from existing mineral stockpiles.
CREIA's 261.8 index looks stable, but dysprosium and terbium trade at 4–5× premiums outside China, revealing a fractured global rare earth market.
Brazilian Rare Earths CEO Bernardo da Veiga returns to discuss Monte Alto's shift from discovery to development, its ultra-high grade, and Brazil's
Xi Jinping returns from SCO tour with rare-earth leverage intact ahead of a September 24 Washington summit with Trump. Will Beijing offer durable mineral
Brazilian Rare Earths drills 21.8% TREO at Monte Alto, Bahia, signaling a rare earth district with district-scale optionality and hub-and-spoke processing
President Marcos signed EO 122 to shift the Philippines from raw ore exporter to domestic processor, reshaping nickel and critical mineral supply chains.
NioCorp's Elk Creek feasibility study projects $4.1B pre-tax NPV and 8 critical minerals over 40 years, but financing and price assumptions remain key risks.
Arnold Magnetic Technologies warns that China's 2025 rare earth export controls exposed how little of the permanent-magnet supply chain the West actually
China shipped 29 metric tons of yttrium oxide to the US in July, but strategic dependency remains. Learn why this relief is not independence.
China and Ecuador agreed to deepen minerals cooperation as Beijing controls both major Ecuadorian copper projects and rare earth potential emerges in
DOE selects nine projects for $162M to recover scandium, REEs, copper, and antimony from industrial feedstocks—but awards are not yet finalized or
Mount Ridley Mines files provisional patent for Selectro after recovering up to 83% heavy rare earths from Grass Patch—but scale-up and economics remain
South Korean defense firms reportedly reroute Chinese rare earths through Russia and Arab countries as Beijing's 2025 export controls threaten missile and
Brazilian Rare Earths unveils a $7.9B NPV scoping study for Rocha da Rocha, potentially one of the West's most critical heavy rare earth upstream assets.
The U.S. plans 3,655 PAC-3 and THAAD interceptors, but China's rare-earth controls and looming 2027 sourcing rules threaten the supply chains beneath them.
China's November 10 export control deadline and January 2027 DFARS rules create a 92-day window for U.S. defense suppliers to secure critical rare-earth
The Pentagon's 21-day weapons surge order collides with a harder reality: rare earths, yttrium, and germanium shortages that no memo can fix overnight.
The Pentagon commits $400M to Sunrise Energy Metals' Syerston project, poised to become the world's first primary scandium mine with Lockheed Martin as a
NioCorp signs a non-binding MOU with Lockheed Martin for up to 15 tonnes of scandium oxide annually, but Elk Creek mine still needs financing to advance.
China plans to expand Bayan Obo mining capacity 50%, but state controls mean more ore won't automatically mean more rare earth output.
Mount Ridley Mines uses TIMA analysis to identify phosphate rare earth host minerals at Grass Patch, opening a potential flotation beneficiation pathway.
China advances 14 new rare earth technical standards at its 2026 working conference, reinforcing its manufacturing dominance from NdFeB alloys to
China's Rare Earth Price Index holds at 268.4 near multi-year highs as heavy rare earth supply outside China stays critically constrained.
Evolution Capital rates Australian Mines a Speculative Buy, but investors must scrutinize scandium pricing assumptions, funding gaps, and demand
In H1 2026, major traders like Traxys, Mercuria, and Sojitz reshaped rare earth supply chains through offtakes, reserves, and state-backed deals amid
Brazilian Rare Earths expands its Monte Alto District with a 9km corridor and exceptional HREE results, but investors await resource estimates and a
China's Baogang Group links Inner Mongolia resources with Hangzhou R&D talent to accelerate rare earth downstream manufacturing and protect strategic IP.
As November 10, 2026 approaches, America must confront whether its rare earth strategy addresses magnets alone—or the full industrial ecosystem China
China controls nearly all global gallium and germanium production, leaving U.S. semiconductor and defense industries dangerously exposed to export
China's rare earth export controls give Washington a real deadline—America must negotiate extensions while building the mine-to-magnet supply chain it
